Advertisement
Archival Report| Volume 8, ISSUE 2, P189-199, February 2023

Cingulate-Prefrontal Connectivity During Dynamic Cognitive Control Mediates Association Between p Factor and Adaptive Functioning in a Transdiagnostic Pediatric Sample

      Abstract

      Background

      Covariation among psychiatric symptoms is being actively pursued for transdiagnostic dimensions of psychopathology with predictive utility. A superordinate dimension, the p factor, reflects overall psychopathology burden and has support from genetic and neuroimaging correlates. However, the neurocognitive correlates that link an elevated p factor to maladaptive outcomes are unknown. We tested the mediating potential of dynamic adjustments in cognitive control rooted in functional connections anchored by the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) in a transdiagnostic pediatric sample.

      Methods

      A multiple mediation model tested the association between the p factor (derived by principal component analysis of Child Behavior Checklist syndrome scales) and outcome measured with the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale-II in 89 children ages 8 to 13 years (23 female) with a variety of primary neurodevelopmental diagnoses who underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging during a socioaffective Stroop-like task with eye gaze as distractor. Mediators included functional connectivity of frontoparietal- and salience network–affiliated dACC seeds during conflict adaptation.

      Results

      Higher p factor scores were related to worse adaptive functioning. This effect was partially mediated by conflict adaptation–dependent functional connectivity between the frontoparietal network–affiliated dACC seed and the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Post hoc follow-up indicated that the p factor was related to all Vineland Adaptive Behaviors Scale-II domains; the association was strongest for socialization followed by daily living skills and then communication. Mediation results remained significant for socialization only.

      Conclusions

      Higher psychopathology burden was associated with worse adaptive functioning in early adolescence. This association was mediated by weaker dACC–dorsolateral prefrontal cortex functional connectivity underlying modulation of cognitive control in response to contextual contingencies. Our results contribute to the identification of transdiagnostic and developmentally relevant neurocognitive endophenotypes of psychopathology.

      Keywords

      To read this article in full you will need to make a payment

      Purchase one-time access:

      Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online access
      One-time access price info
      • For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
      • For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'

      References

        • Caspi A.
        • Houts R.M.
        • Belsky D.W.
        • Goldman-Mellor S.J.
        • Harrington H.
        • Israel S.
        • et al.
        The p factor: One general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders?.
        Clin Psychol Sci. 2014; 2: 119-137
        • Lahey B.B.
        • Applegate B.
        • Waldman I.D.
        • Loft J.D.
        • Hankin B.L.
        • Rick J.
        The structure of child and adolescent psychopathology: Generating new hypotheses.
        J Abnorm Psychol. 2004; 113: 358-385
        • Kotov R.
        • Krueger R.F.
        • Watson D.
        • Achenbach T.M.
        • Althoff R.R.
        • Bagby R.M.
        • et al.
        The hierarchical taxonomy of psychopathology (HiTOP): A dimensional alternative to traditional nosologies.
        J Abnorm Psychol. 2017; 126: 454-477
        • Kessler R.C.
        • Chiu W.T.
        • Demler O.
        • Merikangas K.R.
        • Walters E.E.
        Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication.
        Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005; 62: 617-627
        • Pettersson E.
        • Larsson H.
        • Lichtenstein P.
        Common psychiatric disorders share the same genetic origin: A multivariate sibling study of the Swedish population.
        Mol Psychiatry. 2016; 21: 717-721
        • Lahey B.B.
        • Moore T.M.
        • Kaczkurkin A.N.
        • Zald D.H.
        Hierarchical models of psychopathology: Empirical support, implications, and remaining issues.
        World Psychiatry. 2021; 20: 57-63
        • Snyder H.R.
        • Miyake A.
        • Hankin B.L.
        Advancing understanding of executive function impairments and psychopathology: Bridging the gap between clinical and cognitive approaches.
        Front Psychol. 2015; 6: 328
        • Goodkind M.
        • Eickhoff S.B.
        • Oathes D.J.
        • Jiang Y.
        • Chang A.
        • Jones-Hagata L.B.
        • et al.
        Identification of a common neurobiological substrate for mental Illness.
        JAMA Psychiatry. 2015; 72: 305-315
        • McTeague L.M.
        • Huemer J.
        • Carreon D.M.
        • Jiang Y.
        • Eickhoff S.B.
        • Etkin A.
        Identification of common neural circuit disruptions in cognitive control across psychiatric disorders.
        Am J Psychiatry. 2017; 174: 676-685
        • Lahey B.B.
        • Applegate B.
        • Hakes J.K.
        • Zald D.H.
        • Hariri A.R.
        • Rathouz P.J.
        Is there a general factor of prevalent psychopathology during adulthood?.
        J Abnorm Psychol. 2012; 121: 971-977
        • Ronald A.
        Editorial: The psychopathology p factor: Will it revolutionise the science and practice of child and adolescent psychiatry?.
        J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2019; 60: 497-499
        • Caspi A.
        • Moffitt T.E.
        All for one and one for all: Mental disorders in one dimension.
        Am J Psychiatry. 2018; 175: 831-844
        • Snyder H.R.
        • Young J.F.
        • Hankin B.L.
        Strong homotypic continuity in common psychopathology-, internalizing-, and externalizing-specific factors over time in adolescents.
        Clin Psychol Sci. 2017; 5: 98-110
        • Murray A.L.
        • Eisner M.
        • Ribeaud D.
        The development of the general factor of psychopathology ‘p Factor’ through childhood and adolescence.
        J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2016; 44: 1573-1586
        • Martel M.M.
        • Pan P.M.
        • Hoffmann M.S.
        • Gadelha A.
        • do Rosário M.C.
        • Mari J.J.
        • et al.
        A general psychopathology factor (P Factor) in children: Structural model analysis and external validation through familial risk and child global executive function.
        J Abnorm Psychol. 2017; 126: 137-148
        • Pettersson E.
        • Lahey B.B.
        • Larsson H.
        • Lichtenstein P.
        Criterion validity and utility of the general factor of psychopathology in childhood: Predictive associations with independently measured severe adverse mental health outcomes in adolescence.
        J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2018; 57: 372-383
        • Kaczkurkin A.N.
        • Moore T.M.
        • Calkins M.E.
        • Ciric R.
        • Detre J.A.
        • Elliott M.A.
        • et al.
        Common and dissociable regional cerebral blood flow differences associate with dimensions of psychopathology across categorical diagnoses.
        Mol Psychiatry. 2018; 23: 1981-1989
        • Shanmugan S.
        • Wolf D.H.
        • Calkins M.E.
        • Moore T.M.
        • Ruparel K.
        • Hopson R.D.
        • et al.
        Common and dissociable mechanisms of executive system dysfunction across psychiatricdisorders in youth.
        Am J Psychiatry. 2016; 173: 517-526
        • Parkes L.
        • Moore T.M.
        • Calkins M.E.
        • Cook P.A.
        • Cieslak M.
        • Roalf D.R.
        • et al.
        Transdiagnostic dimensions of psychopathology explain individuals’ unique deviations from normative neurodevelopment in brain structure.
        Transl Psychiatry. 2021; 11: 232
        • Smith G.T.
        • Atkinson E.A.
        • Davis H.A.
        • Riley E.N.
        • Oltmanns J.R.
        The general factor of psychopathology.
        Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2020; 16: 75-98
        • Nigg J.T.
        Annual Research Review: On the relations among self- regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology.
        J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2017; 58: 361-383
        • Coolidge F.L.
        • Thede L.L.
        • Young S.E.
        Heritability and the comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with behavioral disorders and executive function deficits: A preliminary investigation.
        Dev Neuropsychol. 2000; 17: 273-287
        • Harden K.P.
        • Engelhardt L.E.
        • Mann F.D.
        • Patterson M.W.
        • Grotzinger A.D.
        • Savicki S.L.
        • et al.
        Genetic associations between executive functions and a general factor of psychopathology.
        J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2020; 59: 749-758
        • Macdonald A.N.
        • Goines K.B.
        • Novacek D.M.
        • Walker E.F.
        Prefrontal mechanisms of comorbidity from a transdiagnostic and ontogenic perspective.
        Dev Psychopathol. 2016; 28: 1147-1175
        • O’Hearn K.
        • Asato M.
        • Ordaz S.
        • Luna B.
        Neurodevelopment and executive function in autism.
        Dev Psychopathol. 2008; 20: 1103-1132
        • Willcutt E.G.
        • Doyle A.E.
        • Nigg J.T.
        • Faraone S.V.
        • Pennington B.F.
        Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review.
        Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 57: 1336-1346
        • Snyder H.R.
        Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: A meta-analysis and review.
        Psychol Bull. 2013; 139: 81-132
        • Snyder H.R.
        • Kaiser R.H.
        • Warren S.L.
        • Heller W.
        Obsessive–compulsive disorder is associated with broad impairments in executive function: A meta-analysis.
        Clin Psychol Sci. 2015; 3: 301-330
        • Wallace G.L.
        • Kenworthy L.
        • Pugliese C.E.
        • Popal H.S.
        • White E.I.
        • Brodsky E.
        • Martin A.
        Real-world executive functions in adults with autism spectrum disorder: Profiles of impairment and associations with adaptive functioning and co-morbid anxiety and depression.
        J Autism Dev Disord. 2016; 46: 1071-1083
        • Stavro G.M.
        • Ettenhofer M.L.
        • Nigg J.T.
        Executive functions and adaptive functioning in young adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
        J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2007; 13: 324-334
        • Pugliese C.E.
        • Anthony L.
        • Strang J.F.
        • Dudley K.
        • Wallace G.L.
        • Kenworthy L.
        Increasing adaptive behavior skill deficits from childhood to adolescence in autism spectrum disorder: Role of executive function.
        J Autism Dev Disord. 2015; 45: 1579-1587
        • Pugliese C.E.
        • Anthony L.G.
        • Strang J.F.
        • Dudley K.
        • Wallace G.L.
        • Naiman D.Q.
        • Kenworthy L.
        Longitudinal examination of adaptive behavior in autism spectrum disorders: Influence of executive function.
        J Autism Dev Disord. 2016; 46: 467-477
        • Ware A.L.
        • Crocker N.
        • O’Brien J.W.
        • Deweese B.N.
        • Roesch S.C.
        • Coles C.D.
        • et al.
        Executive function predicts adaptive behavior in children with histories of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
        Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2012; 36: 1431-1441
        • Shields A.N.
        • Reardon K.W.
        • Brandes C.M.
        • Tackett J.L.
        The p factor in children: Relationships with executive functions and effortful control.
        J Res Pers. 2019; 82103853
        • Romer A.L.
        • Pizzagalli D.A.
        Is executive dysfunction a risk marker or consequence of psychopathology? A test of executive function as a prospective predictor and outcome of general psychopathology in the adolescent brain cognitive development study.
        Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2021; 51100994
        • Lees B.
        • Squeglia L.M.
        • McTeague L.M.
        • Forbes M.K.
        • Krueger R.F.
        • Sunderland M.
        • et al.
        Altered neurocognitive functional connectivity and activation patterns underlie psychopathology in preadolescence.
        Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2021; 6: 387-398
        • Miller E.K.
        • Cohen J.D.
        An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function.
        Annu Rev Neurosci. 2001; 24: 167-202
        • Braver T.S.
        The variable nature of cognitive control: A dual mechanisms framework.
        Trends Cogn Sci. 2012; 16: 106-113
        • De Pisapia N.
        • Braver T.S.
        A model of dual control mechanisms through anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortex interactions.
        Neurocomputing. 2006; 69: 1322-1326
        • Ullsperger M.
        • King J.A.
        Proactive and reactive recruitment of cognitive control: Comment on Hikosaka and Isoda.
        Trends Cogn Sci. 2010; 14: 191-192
        • Vaidya C.J.
        • Foss-Feig J.
        • Shook D.
        • Kaplan L.
        • Kenworthy L.
        • Gaillard W.D.
        Controlling attention to gaze and arrows in childhood: An fMRI study of typical development and autism spectrum disorders.
        Dev Sci. 2011; 14: 911-924
        • Shenhav A.
        • Botvinick M.M.
        • Cohen J.D.
        The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function.
        Neuron. 2013; 79: 217-240
        • Kerns J.G.
        • Cohen J.D.
        • MacDonald A.W.
        • Cho R.Y.
        • Stenger V.A.
        • Carter C.S.
        Anterior cingulate conflict monitoring and adjustments in control.
        Science. 2004; 303: 1023-1026
        • Clawson A.
        • Clayson P.E.
        • Larson M.J.
        Cognitive control adjustments and conflict adaptation in major depressive disorder.
        Psychophysiology. 2013; 50: 711-721
        • Steudte-Schmiedgen S.
        • Stalder T.
        • Kirschbaum C.
        • Weber F.
        • Hoyer J.
        • Plessow F.
        Trauma exposure is associated with increased context-dependent adjustments of cognitive control in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder and healthy controls.
        Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 2014; 14: 1310-1319
        • Larson M.J.
        • South M.
        • Clayson P.E.
        • Clawson A.
        Cognitive control and conflict adaptation in youth with high-functioning autism.
        J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2012; 53: 440-448
        • Lansbergen M.M.
        • Kenemans J.L.
        • Van Engeland H.
        Stroop interference and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A review and meta-analysis.
        Neuropsychology. 2007; 21: 251-262
        • Abrahamse E.
        • Ruitenberg M.
        • Duthoo W.
        • Sabbe B.
        • Morrens M.
        • van Dijck J.P.
        Conflict adaptation in schizophrenia: Reviewing past and previewing future efforts.
        Cogn Neuropsychiatry. 2016; 21: 197-212
        • Murphy E.R.
        • Foss-Feig J.
        • Kenworthy L.
        • Gaillard W.D.
        • Vaidya C.J.
        Atypical functional connectivity of the amygdala in childhood autism spectrum disorders during spontaneous attention to eye-gaze.
        Autism Res Treat 2012. 2012; 652408
        • Barnes K.A.
        • Kaplan L.A.
        • Vaidya C.J.
        Developmental differences in cognitive control of socio-affective processing.
        Dev Neuropsychol. 2007; 32: 787-807
        • Galfano G.
        • Dalmaso M.
        • Marzoli D.
        • Pavan G.
        • Coricelli C.
        • Castelli L.
        Eye gaze cannot be ignored (but neither can arrows).
        Q J Exp Psychol (Hove). 2012; 65: 1895-1910
        • Brotman M.A.
        • Rich B.A.
        • Guyer A.E.
        • Lunsford J.R.
        • Horsey S.E.
        • Reising M.M.
        • et al.
        Amygdala activation during emotion processing of neutral faces in children with severe mood dysregulation versus ADHD or bipolar disorder.
        Am J Psychiatry. 2010; 167: 61-69
        • Leppänen J.M.
        • Milders M.
        • Bell J.S.
        • Terriere E.
        • Hietanen J.K.
        Depression biases the recognition of emotionally neutral faces.
        Psychiatry Res. 2004; 128: 123-133
        • Critchley H.D.
        • Tang J.
        • Glaser D.
        • Butterworth B.
        • Dolan R.J.
        Anterior cingulate activity during error and autonomic response.
        Neuroimage. 2005; 27: 885-895
        • Shenhav A.
        • Cohen J.D.
        • Botvinick M.M.
        Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and the value of control.
        Nat Neurosci. 2016; 19: 1286-1291
        • Matsumoto K.
        • Tanaka K.
        Conflict and cognitive control.
        Science. 2004; 303: 969-970
        • McTeague L.M.
        • Rosenberg B.M.
        • Lopez J.W.
        • Carreon D.M.
        • Huemer J.
        • Jiang Y.
        • et al.
        Identification of common neural circuit disruptions in emotional processing across psychiatric disorders.
        Am J Psychiatry. 2020; 177: 411-421
        • McTeague L.M.
        • Goodkind M.S.
        • Etkin A.
        Transdiagnostic impairment of cognitive control in mental illness.
        J Psychiatr Res. 2016; 83: 37-46
        • Romer A.L.
        • Pizzagalli D.A.
        Associations between brain structural alterations, executive dysfunction, and general psychopathology in a healthy and cross-diagnostic adult patient sample.
        Biol Psychiatry Glob Open Sci. 2022; 2: 17-27
        • Yarkoni T.
        • Poldrack R.A.
        • Nichols T.E.
        • Van Essen D.C.
        • Wager T.D.
        Large-scale automated synthesis of human functional neuroimaging data.
        Nat Methods. 2011; 8: 665-670
        • Schaefer A.
        • Kong R.
        • Gordon E.M.
        • Laumann T.O.
        • Zuo X.N.
        • Holmes A.J.
        • et al.
        Local-global parcellation of the human cerebral cortex from intrinsic functional connectivity MRI.
        Cereb Cortex. 2018; 28: 3095-3114
        • McLaren D.G.
        • Ries M.L.
        • Xu G.
        • Johnson S.C.
        A generalized form of context-dependent psychophysiological interactions (gPPI): A comparison to standard approaches.
        Neuroimage. 2012; 61: 1277-1286
        • Lord C.
        • Risi S.
        • Lambrecht L.
        • Cook Jr., E.H.
        • Leventhal B.L.
        • DiLavore P.C.
        • et al.
        The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism.
        J Autism Dev Disord. 2000; 30: 205-223
        • Sheehan D.V.
        • Lecrubier Y.
        • Sheehan K.H.
        • Amorim P.
        • Janavs J.
        • Weiller E.
        • et al.
        The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): The development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10.
        J Clin Psychiatry. 1998; 59 (quiz 34–57): 22-33
        • Wechsler D.
        Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) [Database record].
        APA PsycTests. 1999; https://doi.org/10.1037/t15170-000
        • Sparrow S.
        • Ciccheti V.
        • Balla D.A.
        Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale. 2nd ed. MN American Guidance Service, Circle Pines2005
        • Achenbach T.M.
        Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT, University of Vermont1991
        • Allegrini A.G.
        • Cheesman R.
        • Rimfeld K.
        • Selzam S.
        • Pingault J.B.
        • Eley T.C.
        • Plomin R.
        The p factor: Genetic analyses support a general dimension of psychopathology in childhood and adolescence.
        J Child Psychol Psychiatr. 2020; 61: 30-39
      1. FaceGen Modeller. FaceGen. Available at: http://www.facegen.com/. Accessed November 2021.

        • Esteban O.
        • Markiewicz C.J.
        • Blair R.W.
        • Moodie C.A.
        • Isik A.I.
        • Erramuzpe A.
        • et al.
        fMRIPrep: A robust preprocessing pipeline for functional MRI.
        Nat Methods. 2019; 16: 111-116
        • Gorgolewski K.
        • Burns C.D.
        • Madison C.
        • Clark D.
        • Halchenko Y.O.
        • Waskom M.L.
        • Ghosh S.S.
        Nipype: A flexible, lightweight and extensible neuroimaging data processing framework in Python.
        Front Neuroinform. 2011; 5: 13
        • Whitfield-Gabrieli S.
        • Nieto-Castanon A.
        Conn: A functional connectivity toolbox for correlated and anticorrelated brain networks.
        Brain Connect. 2012; 2: 125-141
        • Sun F.T.
        • Miller L.M.
        • D’Esposito M.
        Measuring interregional functional connectivity using coherence and partial coherence analyses of fMRI data.
        Neuroimage. 2004; 21: 647-658
        • Bassett D.S.
        • Yang M.
        • Wymbs N.F.
        • Grafton S.T.
        Learning-induced autonomy of sensorimotor systems.
        Nat Neurosci. 2015; 18: 744-751
        • Vatansever D.
        • Menon D.K.
        • Manktelow A.E.
        • Sahakian B.J.
        • Stamatakis E.A.
        Default mode dynamics for global functional integration.
        J Neurosci. 2015; 35: 15254-15262
        • Uddin L.Q.
        • Yeo B.T.T.
        • Spreng R.N.
        Towards a universal taxonomy of macro-scale functional human brain networks.
        Brain Topogr. 2019; 32: 926-942
        • Menon V.
        Large-scale brain networks and psychopathology: A unifying triple network model.
        Trends Cogn Sci. 2011; 15: 483-506
        • Desikan R.S.
        • Ségonne F.
        • Fischl B.
        • Quinn B.T.
        • Dickerson B.C.
        • Blacker D.
        • et al.
        An automated labeling system for subdividing the human cerebral cortex on MRI scans into gyral based regions of interest.
        Neuroimage. 2006; 31: 968-980
        • Frazier J.A.
        • Chiu S.
        • Breeze J.L.
        • Makris N.
        • Lange N.
        • Kennedy D.N.
        • et al.
        Structural brain magnetic resonance imaging of limbic and thalamic volumes in pediatric bipolar disorder.
        Am J Psychiatry. 2005; 162: 1256-1265
        • Goldstein J.M.
        • Seidman L.J.
        • Makris N.
        • Ahern T.
        • O’Brien L.M.
        • Caviness V.S.
        • et al.
        Hypothalamic abnormalities in schizophrenia: Sex effects and genetic vulnerability.
        Biol Psychiatry. 2007; 61: 935-945
        • Makris N.
        • Goldstein J.M.
        • Kennedy D.
        • Hodge S.M.
        • Caviness V.S.
        • Faraone S.V.
        • et al.
        Decreased volume of left and total anterior insular lobule in schizophrenia.
        Schizophr Res. 2006; 83: 155-171
        • Andy Bunn M.K.
        An introduction to dplR.
        Ind Commer Train. 2008; 10: 11-18
        • Rosseel Y.
        lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling.
        J Stat Softw. 2012; 48: 1-36
        • Gunzler D.
        • Chen T.
        • Wu P.
        • Zhang H.
        Introduction to mediation analysis with structural equation modeling.
        Shanghai Arch Psychiatry. 2013; 25: 390-394
        • Wang X.
        • Wang T.
        • Chen Z.
        • Hitchman G.
        • Liu Y.
        • Chen A.
        Functional connectivity patterns reflect individual differences in conflict adaptation.
        Neuropsychologia. 2015; 70: 177-184
        • Wang T.
        • Chen X.
        • Pan W.
        • Xiao Q.
        • Chen A.
        The neural network underlying individual differences in conflict adaptation effect.
        Biol Psychol. 2021; 164108150
        • Berger H.J.
        • Aerts F.H.
        • van Spaendonck K.P.
        • Cools A.R.
        • Teunisse J.P.
        Central coherence and cognitive shifting in relation to social improvement in high-functioning young adults with autism.
        J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2003; 25: 502-511
        • Faja S.
        • Dawson G.
        • Sullivan K.
        • Meltzoff A.N.
        • Estes A.
        • Bernier R.
        Executive function predicts the development of play skills for verbal preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders.
        Autism Res. 2016; 9: 1274-1284
        • Pellicano E.
        Links between theory of mind and executive function in young children with autism: Clues to developmental primacy.
        Dev Psychol. 2007; 43: 974-990
        • Pellicano E.
        Individual differences in executive function and central coherence predict developmental changes in theory of mind in autism.
        Dev Psychol. 2010; 46: 530-544
        • Pellicano E.
        Testing the predictive power of cognitive atypicalities in autistic children: Evidence from a 3-year follow-up study.
        Autism Res. 2013; 6: 258-267
        • Meng M.
        • Cherian T.
        • Singal G.
        • Sinha P.
        Lateralization of face processing in the human brain.
        Proc Biol Sci. 2012; 279: 2052-2061
        • Cole E.J.
        • Phillips A.L.
        • Bentzley B.S.
        • Stimpson K.H.
        • Nejad R.
        • Barmak F.
        • et al.
        Stanford neuromodulation therapy (SNT): A double-blind randomized controlled trial.
        Am J Psychiatry. 2022; 179: 132-141
        • Watts B.V.
        • Landon B.
        • Groft A.
        • Young-Xu Y.
        A sham controlled study of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for posttraumatic stress disorder.
        Brain Stimul. 2012; 5: 38-43
        • Boggio P.S.
        • Rocha M.
        • Oliveira M.O.
        • Fecteau S.
        • Cohen R.B.
        • Campanhã C.
        • et al.
        Noninvasive brain stimulation with high-frequency and low- intensity repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder.
        J Clin Psychiatry. 2010; 71: 992-999
        • Mantovani A.
        • Aly M.
        • Dagan Y.
        • Allart A.
        • Lisanby S.H.
        Randomized sham controlled trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for the treatment of panic disorder with comorbid major depression.
        J Affect Disord. 2013; 144: 153-159
        • Dalton B.
        • Bartholdy S.
        • Campbell I.C.
        • Schmidt U.
        Neurostimulation in clinical and sub-clinical eating disorders: A systematic update of the literature.
        Curr Neuropharmacol. 2018; 16: 1174-1192
        • Fischer A.S.
        • Keller C.J.
        • Etkin A.
        The clinical applicability of functional connectivity in depression: Pathways toward more targeted intervention.
        Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2016; 1: 262-270
        • Geng J.J.
        • Vossel S.
        Re-evaluating the role of TPJ in attentional control: Contextual updating?.
        Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2013; 37: 2608-2620
        • Joseph R.M.
        • Fricker Z.
        • Keehn B.
        Activation of frontoparietal attention networks by non-predictive gaze and arrow cues.
        Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2015; 10: 294-301
        • Miyake A.
        • Friedman N.P.
        • Emerson M.J.
        • Witzki A.H.
        • Howerter A.
        • Wager T.D.
        The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis.
        Cogn Psychol. 2000; 41: 49-100
        • Duncan J.
        The multiple-demand (MD) system of the primate brain: Mental programs for intelligent behaviour.
        Trends Cogn Sci. 2010; 14: 172-179
        • Friedman N.P.
        • Miyake A.
        Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure.
        Cortex. 2017; 86: 186-204
        • Yerys B.E.
        • Antezana L.
        • Weinblatt R.
        • Jankowski K.F.
        • Strang J.
        • Vaidya C.J.
        • et al.
        Neural correlates of set-shifting in children with autism.
        Autism Res. 2015; 8: 386-397
        • Schmitz N.
        • Rubia K.
        • Daly E.
        • Smith A.
        • Williams S.
        • Murphy D.G.M.
        Neural correlates of executive function in autistic spectrum disorders.
        Biol Psychiatry. 2006; 59: 7-16
        • Wager T.D.
        • Jonides J.
        • Smith E.E.
        • Nichols T.E.
        Toward a taxonomy of attention shifting: Individual differences in fMRI during multiple shift types.
        Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 2005; 5: 127-143
        • Bissonette G.B.
        • Powell E.M.
        • Roesch M.R.
        Neural structures underlying set-shifting: Roles of medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex.
        Behav Brain Res. 2013; 250: 91-101
        • Carver C.S.
        • Johnson S.L.
        • Timpano K.R.
        Toward a functional view of the p factor in psychopathology.
        Clin Psychol Sci. 2017; 5: 880-889
        • Romer A.L.
        • Hariri A.R.
        • Strauman T.J.
        Regulatory focus and the p factor: Evidence for self-regulatory dysfunction as a transdiagnostic feature of general psychopathology.
        J Psychiatr Res. 2021; 137: 178-185
        • Chen T.
        • Becker B.
        • Camilleri J.
        • Wang L.
        • Yu S.
        • Eickhoff S.B.
        • Feng C.
        A domain-general brain network underlying emotional and cognitive interference processing: Evidence from coordinate-based and functional connectivity meta-analyses.
        Brain Struct Funct. 2018; 223: 3813-3840
        • Packer D.J.
        • Cunningham W.A.
        Neural correlates of reflection on goal states: The role of regulatory focus and temporal distance.
        Soc Neurosci. 2009; 4: 412-425
        • Romer A.L.
        • Knodt A.R.
        • Houts R.
        • Brigidi B.D.
        • Moffitt T.E.
        • Caspi A.
        • Hariri A.R.
        Structural alterations within cerebellar circuitry are associated with general liability for common mental disorders.
        Mol Psychiatry. 2018; 23: 1084-1090
        • Romer A.L.
        • Knodt A.R.
        • Sison M.L.
        • Ireland D.
        • Houts R.
        • Ramrakha S.
        • et al.
        Replicability of structural brain alterations associated with general psychopathology: Evidence from a population-representative birth cohort.
        Mol Psychiatry. 2021; 26: 3839-3846
        • Power J.D.
        • Barnes K.A.
        • Snyder A.Z.
        • Schlaggar B.L.
        • Petersen S.E.
        Spurious but systematic correlations in functional connectivity MRI networks arise from subject motion.
        Neuroimage. 2012; 59: 2142-2154
        • Bryce N.V.
        • Flournoy J.C.
        • Guassi Moreira J.F.
        • Rosen M.L.
        • Sambook K.A.
        • Mair P.
        • McLaughlin K.A.
        Brain parcellation selection: An overlooked decision point with meaningful effects on individual differences in resting-state functional connectivity.
        Neuroimage. 2021; 243118487
        • Fried E.I.
        • Greene A.L.
        • Eaton N.R.
        The p factor is the sum of its parts, for now.
        World Psychiatry. 2021; 20: 69-70
        • Loijen A.
        • Vrijsen J.N.
        • Egger J.I.M.
        • Becker E.S.
        • Rinck M.
        Biased approach-avoidance tendencies in psychopathology: A systematic review of their assessment and modification.
        Clin Psychol Rev. 2020; 77101825
        • Dohrenwend B.P.
        The role of adversity and stress in psychopathology: Some evidence and its implications for theory and research.
        J Health Soc Behav. 2000; 41: 1-19
        • Snyder H.R.
        • Friedman N.P.
        • Hankin B.L.
        Transdiagnostic mechanisms of psychopathology in youth: Executive functions, dependent stress, and rumination.
        Cognit Ther Res. 2019; 43: 834-851